In broad terms, cultural geography examines the cultural values, practices, discursive and material expressions and artefacts of people, the cultural diversity and plurality of society, and how cultures are distributed over space, how places and identities are produced, how people make sense of places and build senses of place, and how people produce and communicate knowledge and meaning. Cultural geography has long been a core component of the discipline of geography, though how it has been conceived, its conceptual tools, and the approach to empirical research has changed quite markedly over time.
In the late 19th century, cultural geography sought to compare and contrast different cultures around the world and their relationship to natural environments. This form of cultural geography was adopted, extended, and promoted in North American geography in the early 20th century, especially through the Berkeley School and Carl Sauer.
They were particularly interested in how people adapted to environments, but more particularly how people shaped the landscape through agriculture , engineering, and building, and how the landscape was reflective of the people who produced it. During this period, cultural geographers started to engage with new theoretical ideas within social theory, including humanism , structuralism , post-structuralism , postmodernism , and post-colonialism , recasting cultural geography in a number of significant ways.
Most crucially, culture itself was conceived as a fluid, flexible, and dynamic process that actively constructs society, rather than simply reflecting it. From the perspective of new cultural geography, landscape was not simply a material artefact that reflected culture in straightforward ways, but was laden with symbolic meaning that needed to be decoded with respect to social and historical context, using new techniques such as iconography.
Similarly, it was contended that other cultural practices, artefacts, and representations needed to be theorized and analysed in much more contextual, contingent, and relational ways, sensitive to the workings of difference and power. Here, new cultural geographers argued that cultural identities are not essentialized and teleological , but rather need to be understood as constitutive of complex power geometries giving rise to all kinds of hydridity and diversity see essentialism ; teleology.
As a result, since the s cultural geography has developed to examine the broad range of ways in which culture evolves and makes a difference to everyday life and places. Studies have examined the cultural politics of different social groups with respect to issues such as disability , ethnicity , gender , race , sexuality , and how the processes and practices of othering , colonialism , imperialism , nationalism , and religion shape the lives of people in different locales and contexts fostering senses of belonging and exclusion.
More recently still, a move towards non-representational theory has developed the focus beyond representations. Through the cultural turn, there has also been a move to explore how culture intersects with other forms of geographical inquiry such as the economic and political, arguing that these domains are deeply inflected and shaped by cultural processes see cultural economy. Consequently, cultural geography is one of the most vibrant fields in human geography today. Castree, N.
Retrieved 14 Mar. Previously, there was no specific subject heading for Cultural Geography. When you tried that term, " cultural geography ", as a subject search, the online catalog refered you to Human Geography. However, you can now use the subject search " cultural geography " to find books published after If you do a keyword search for " cultural geography " you get all the rest of the stuff! The first 30 are the most relevant in the keyword search. For more books about cultural geography, click here.
Articles and other writings about Cultural Geography can be found in many publications. Our collection includes several journals which look at Cultural Geography. To find them, you can do the following subject search in the online catalog : " cultural geography periodicals. Or you can use the search box at the top of the page. Want an easy way to keep up with the journal literature for all facets of Geography?
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You can get to it here. The web version works the same way as the app version. Farmers were in some sense cognitively and practically prepared for variability in rainfall, implementing a standard farm plan every year by orchestrating soil quality, seed varieties, and water conservation practices in relation to the actual distribution of rainfall events. This indigenous practice revealed the capacity of local people to experiment with local resources and to respond to weather variability.
However, almost one-third of all rural households were not self-sufficient in food even in normal years. This group of households was especially vulnerable to weather variations and seasonal fluctuations in grain prices.
In periods of severe drought, many poor households were forced to liquidate their assets systematically, sometimes resulting in the sale of land and permanent out-migration in search of money, work, and food.
Famines thereby intensified existing patterns of social inequality and risk, further polarizing already differentiated communities. What is needed is a set of theories that provides rules for connecting a changing global geography of mass and energy with local outcomes. In ecosystems there is a nested hierarchy of scales so that relatively simple localized assemblages of life forms and their related physical and chemical systems aggregate into larger, ever more complicated associations.
Different explanations apply to the behavior and arrangement of the systems at different. A riparian forest, for example, adjusts to changes in flooding, groundwater levels, and nutrient loadings in the water and soil. These adjustments are measurable and meaningful within just a few meters in the vertical dimension. At the opposite end of the scale, in biomes—or subcontinental assemblages of ecosystems—these local driving mechanisms are meaningless, and the most useful explanations lie almost completely in the climatological realm.
Within a given biome, distributions may be explained best by geologic and landform variables. Successful scientific explanations therefore must start with selecting the controlling variable that is most closely associated in scale terms with the object of study. Management of environmental change also has important scale considerations.
Watershed management in the United States provides an instructive example. Throughout the twentieth century, watershed management has progressively become a federal responsibility. However, the result of national management was a scale mismatch because there are no basins that are truly national in size.
Local interests, including resource developers, water and power users, conservationists, and preservationists, have felt isolated from the decision making process that directly affected them and their watersheds. In the latter part of the century, more localized decision making is becoming common. In Massachusetts, for example, the state coordinates watershed associations organized along drainage basin boundaries.
These administrative entities bring together the stakeholders in basins of a few hundred square kilometers to reach compromise solutions in management questions. In the Pacific Northwest, watershed councils of federal, state, local, and tribal representatives operate within basin boundaries to address such problems as balancing economic development and preservation of salmon, objectives that rely on the same watershed resources.
The most effective scale for governmental administration of watersheds remains an open question, but the EPA, the U. Bureau of Reclamation, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and several other agencies are supporting a National Research Council study of the issue 2 with the ultimate goal of better matching the scales of natural and administrative process.
The economic health of a locality, region, or nation depends on the interaction of processes that operate at many different scales—ranging from global capital flows to local labor markets. Geographers have long been interested in this interplay of global, regional, and local processes—for example, those between global economic forces and local social forces.
Much like the fractal images of mathematics, extremes of poverty replicate themselves at spatial scales ranging from the global to the neighborhood, implying an irreducible spatial complexity to social irregularity. The heterogeneity across spatial scales reflects variations in political, institutional, and social characteristics and adaptations among places.
It also reflects complex processes linking very different scales. Thus, international capital flows link inner-city sweat shops that manufacture clothing in both third-world and first-world economies with affluent and far-flung suburbs and "edge cities" of metropolitan regions. Differences in economic paths between countries and regions are shaped by differences within those places and also by their differing situations within larger-scale economic and political processes.
Within metropolitan areas in many industrialized countries, for instance, suburbanization during the past 25 years has included not only residential development but also the complete range of economic, political, and social activities, with two glaring exceptions: the poorest and least educated households see Sidebar 5.
This "spatial mismatch" between the work experience of many inner-city residents and the employment opportunities available nearby has been studied in some detail by geographers and sociologists, including its relationships to processes and policies at regional and national scales.
The interest of geographers in scale-related issues involving the connectivity of places is timely because the roles of nation states and localities are undergoing profound change. Developments from both "above" and "below" are challenging the autonomy and power of the state.
Internationalization of the economy, development of transport and communications linkages across international boundaries, and growth of substate nationalism and regionalism have pushed scale-related issues of regional formation and interregional interactions to the fore. Although states continue to play powerful roles in many arenas, such issues cannot adequately be addressed using the conventional construct of the state as a discrete analytical unit independent of cross-scale dynamics.
Conflict and cooperation is a good example of a scale-dependent issue that has received recent attention from geographers. Through analyses that look beyond the scale of the state, geographers have contributed to our understanding of the influence of the global economy on local political developments Taylor, ; the nature and importance of cross-border cooperation for the management of social, political, and economic issues Murphy, ; the impacts of global economic restructuring on patterns of interaction Dicken, ; and the influence.
A spatiotemporal framework in which object-based representations, location-based representations, and time-based representations are treated as complementary approaches to representation of space-time phenomena. This framework is currently applied to design a spatiotemporal data structure that supports research and policy analysis associated with issues of forest succession and management. This integrated view of location, object, and time extends the ability of GISs as a framework for synthesis by considering time and change directly, rather than as simply an attribute of space.
Many of the substantive contributions by geography to science are rooted in spatial representation. The relevance of geographic research in advancing representational theory and representational tools used throughout science is clear from the widespread interest in GISs and geographic information analysis, but.
The use of spatial representation as a way to facilitate creative thinking, especially related to nonlinear dynamics, has increased rapidly in the past two decades with the growing decentralized use of computer graphic technologies. Similarly, the use of methods and tools for spatial representation is fundamental to geographic synthesis. GISs, in particular, act as a framework through which information from disparate sources can be integrated and linked to mathematical models and to visual display.
Spatial representation has become part of the everyday research experiences of a great many scientists. Much of the recent geographic research on spatial representation is focused on finding better ways to represent the dynamics of the ''real world," for example, by extending fundamental concepts of spatial representation into the temporal domain. Key questions addressed by this research include the following:.
Two of Philip Gersmehl's nine "metaphors" for map animation. These metaphors provide conceptual models that map animation designers can use as a basis for building dynamic representations of spatial-temporal processes.
The "stage and play" metaphor treats a map as a base or stage on which action plays out in the form of moving objects and territories particularly suited to representation of human spatial behavior associated with migration or war. The "metamorphosis" metaphor was based on the concept of a flexible dynamic object that changes shape over time; it is particularly suited to representation of processes in which area features change size and shape, such as desertification, growth of cities, or the spread of an oil spill.
Spatial data support a broad range of research and policy decisions; thus, issues of spatial data reliability i. The National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis, supported by the National Science Foundation, plays a major role in setting the national research agenda through a research initiative Beard and Buttenfield, and research challenge on "Visualization of Data Quality" Buttenfield and Beard, The winning project in this challenge integrated principles of GVis and exploratory data analysis in the design of an interactive interface for data analysis.
The interface allows analysts to monitor spatial and temporal trends in dissolved inorganic nitrogen DIN in the Chesapeake Bay as well as to consider spatial variation in the reliability of DIN estimates see Plate 6. An alternative to treating reliability as an attribute of data that can be mapped is to approach the problem as a question of selecting among a range of possible representations.
The more these representations differ, the less reliable any one of them is as the model of reality. An intriguing example of reliability representation that adopts this perspective was developed for application with remotely sensed images.
These images result from classification of electromagnetic signals for grid cells called pixels that represent square patches of the Earth's surface. The classification procedure involves determining the likelihood that the Earth area represented by the pixel is in each of several possible categories e. Traditional classified images represent only the most likely category for each pixel even when the signal processed for that pixel makes classification ambiguous.
Multiple images can be used to convey the range of "possible" alternatives to this "best guess. The error model generates possible versions of the "truth" i. An important assumption in implementing the error model is that the outcomes of neighboring pixels are correlated i.
In Plate 7 , the extent of intrapixel correlation is controlled to produce the four realizations. As the size of this spatial dependence parameter increases, the size of inclusions i. A simple but dramatic synthesis of research directed to these four questions is a video developed by geographers at the U.
Geological Survey. In the video, topographic maps, satellite imagery, land-use maps, and digital terrain models are linked in a dynamic depiction of urbanization in the San Francisco Bay Area between and see Plate 9.
The same representational tools are currently being linked to a prototype urban growth model so that analysts can investigate what human occupance of the bay area might look like in years. Geographic research contributions to the science of spatial representation include work on the classification of geographic entities and visual representations of data reliability see Sidebar 5.
Geographers are also linking cognitive and digital representations of space—for example, as part of an interdisciplinary effort to understand the interaction between human spatial cognition and way finding. One component of this research focuses on visually impaired populations Golledge, , work that has implications for the guidance of robotic vehicles.
Additional basic research has addressed such issues as scale effects in spatial cognition, ways in which orientation and direction information is handled in memory, development of configurational i. By way of example, this chapter has illustrated how geography's perspectives and techniques contribute to understanding key issues in science and strengthen what science offers to the resolution of critical societal problems.
The potential for further contributions is significant. For instance, a powerful tool for integrating a variety of dynamic processes to anticipate possible futures is the description of "future geographies"—maps of evolving patterns of change, related to real places and the concerns of those who live there see Sidebar 5.
If geography is to increase its contributions to scientific understanding, however, both geography and the other sciences need to develop more productive partnerships that combine their unique perspectives and approaches to problem solving.
Geography itself needs to be engaged more often in research activities that embrace and pursue broader contributions to science, at least partly by showing a greater concern for critical research problem definition by the larger research community. The family of sciences, in turn, needs to be better informed about geography and how its perspectives can contribute to scientific understanding. Both of these priorities call for increased interactions between geographers and their counterparts in other sciences: increases in quantity, quality, diversity, and orientation to critical issues.
As political, economic, and environmental issues increasingly spread across the globe, the science of geography is being rediscovered by scientists, policymakers, and educators alike. Geography has been made a core subject in U. Rediscovering Geography presents a broad overview of geography's renewed importance in a changing world. Through discussions and highlighted case studies, this book illustrates geography's impact on international trade, environmental change, population growth, information infrastructure, the condition of cities, the spread of AIDS, and much more.
The committee examines some of the more significant tools for data collection, storage, analysis, and display, with examples of major contributions made by geographers. Rediscovering Geography provides a blueprint for the future of the discipline, recommending how to strengthen its intellectual and institutional foundation and meet the demand for geographic expertise among professionals and the public.
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Integration in Place. Geography's Subject Matter. Example: Environmental-Societal Dynamics. Page 72 Share Cite. Page 73 Share Cite. Example: The Distinctiveness of Place. Page 74 Share Cite. Page 75 Share Cite. Geography's Relevance to Issues for Science and Society.
Example: Complexity and Nonlinearity. Page 76 Share Cite. Example: Central Tendency and Variation. Page 77 Share Cite. Example: Economic and Social Health. Example: Environmental Change. Page 78 Share Cite. Page 79 Share Cite. Page 80 Share Cite. Page 81 Share Cite. Page 82 Share Cite. Page 83 Share Cite. Page 84 Share Cite. Page 85 Share Cite. Page 86 Share Cite. Example: Conflict and Cooperation. Interdependencies Between Places. Page 87 Share Cite. Example: Spatial Economic Flows. Page 88 Share Cite.
Source: After Beyers Page 89 Share Cite. Example: Human Migration. Example: Watershed Dynamics. Page 90 Share Cite. Page 91 Share Cite. Page 92 Share Cite. Relevance to Issues for Science and Society. Page 93 Share Cite. Page 94 Share Cite. Page 95 Share Cite. Example: Human Health. Interdependencies Among Scales. Page 96 Share Cite. Page 97 Share Cite. Example: Population and Resources. Page 98 Share Cite. Page 99 Share Cite.
Page Share Cite. Example: Economic Health. Source: After Peuquet Blocos are smaller groups that often gather in neighborhood s to dance during Carnival festivities. Political Geography Political geography is the internal and external relationships between government s and citizens. The Treaty of Tordesillas of granted Spain and Portugal the exclusive right to colonize all lands outside of Europe.
The treaty also established a line of demarcation, which gave all land west of the line to Spain and all land east of the line to Portugal. Spain colonized the majority of South America and Portugal colonized present-day Brazil. They also developed writing systems for native oral tradition s such as Quechua, Nahuatl, and Guarani. Marriages between European colonizers and native populations established the mestizo class.
Mestizos are people of mixed indigenous and European ancestry. Today, mestizos make up large parts of the populations of many South American countries, such as Paraguay 95 percent , Ecuador 65 percent , and Colombia 58 percent. Inspired by the American and French Revolutions, mestizos fought in several wars of independence from to South America has also suffered violent political transitions, especially during the s and s.
These decades were defined by the Cold War , a global struggle between democratic Western nations and repress ive nations with communist economies. The successful Cuban revolution of brought communism to Cuba. The United States and other western nations feared that communism would spread throughout Latin America, which includes Central and South America and parts of the Caribbean. Communist leaders did, in fact, gain some power in South America during the s. Hoping to destroy the communist presence, U.
These dictatorships detained tens of thousands of political prisoner s. Many of them were tortured and killed. The nationalization and privatization of industry, as well as the influence of indigenous groups, are the primary political issues affecting South America. Nationalization is a type of ownership where the state controls an industry , as opposed to private companies.
Some South American nations have nationalize d industries, such as electricity or oil production, in order to encourage economic development. Chile nationalized its copper mines in , for instance. Before nationalization, Chilean copper mines were controlled by large foreign companies. Bolivian President Evo Morales has nationalized the oil and natural gas industry of Bolivia.
Morales also bought water distribution rights in the capital of La Paz from a private French company. Other leaders, such as Ecuadorean President Rafael Correa, have threatened to nationalize industries if foreign companies do not respect the right s of the countries they are doing business in.
Many believe that nationalization has improved the lives of local populations, and the poor strongly support nationalization efforts. Others argue that nationalization has worsened the quality of services and given too much control to the government. Some South American countries have done the opposite of nationalization—they have privatized industries. In these countries, such as Brazil and Argentina, the government has sold industries to mostly foreign investors and companies. Much like nationalization, privatization has had mixed results.
Many industries are now more efficient producers of resources such as steel. Services such as water and sewage are also more reliable under private ownership. However, privatization has contributed to higher unemployment rates and increased the costs of goods and services. Indigenous populations of South America have aimed to increase their local and global influence. In , for instance, Bolivia passed an important new constitution.
It guaranteed political representation of indigenous groups, recognizes their communal forms of property, and grants them the right to use indigenous justice systems. The Bolivian Education Ministry is expanding its native-language programs. Their work to support the rights of indigenous people has led to the creation of many Quechua-language materials and media, including Quechua versions of the Google search page and the Microsoft Windows software system.
Future Issues Urbanization will define the human geography of South America in years to come. It is the only developing region with more poor people in cities than in rural areas. Individuals and families face increasing job insecurity, lower wage s, and a reduction in social services such as electricity and water.
Urbanization and industrialization are also destroying the unique biome s of South America. The Amazon rain forest is being burned at a rate of one acre every second.
Trees are harvested for the timber industry, while the plains of the rain forest are turned into ranch es, farms, and towns. This development is increasing the amount of air and water pollution in the Amazon basin and elsewhere. In rural areas, poor people face the consequences of geographic isolation and limited public investment in education, health care , and housing. The regulation or reduction of carbon emission s is perhaps the most important part of reducing global warming , the most recent period of climate change.
As part of the international agreement known simply as the Paris Climate Agreement or Paris Agreement, some South American countries agreed to reduce emissions. The oil-rich countries of Venezuela and Ecuador, however, have decided not to engage with the Paris Agreement.
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